Theory Review--Jennifer Webb-Dudley

Relationships in Learning

Your name	Commented On
Jennifer Webb-Dudley	Group 5: Amber Davidson

What are the types of relationships that affect learning?

There are several types of relationships that can be considered as having an impact on learning.  They are peer relationships, teacher-learner relationships, mentor-mentee relationships, family relationships, even the relationship between the learner and society, the learner and divinity, and the learner and themselves. 

In this review, I will primarily concentrate on the relationships learners have with their peers, with their teachers, and with their learning communities.  I will discuss several major theoretical perspectives on the role of relationships in learning and highlight some of the learning outcomes associated with strong relationships.  I will summarize some of the factors which affect relationships in learning and, finally, some applications for designers of adult learning experiences.

What do the major theoretical perspectives have to say regarding relationships in learning?

Some of the major learning theories do not even consider the impact of relationships on the learning process.  Andragogy has been criticized for its “slavish focus on the individual learner” (Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020 p. 122).  Even the learner’s relationship to the teacher is viewed as something that should be eroded as the learner becomes more and more autonomous.  Little, if any mention is given to peer or family relationships. Similarly, McClusky discusses family relationships only as part of the learner’s load. A learner’s emotional connections to the people in their life is reduced to being a burden that prevents them from developing. 

Some of the theories do concern themselves with relationships; however, and I will discuss five of them: Transformative, Eastern / Indigenous Perspectives, Critical Theory, Constructivist, and Experiential.

Transformative Learning

Transformative learning theories discuss the learner’s relationships with the self, with peers, with teachers, and with culture and society at large (Merriam, S., Baumgartner, L., 2020 p.189).  For transformational theorists, learning is more than the acquisition of knowledge, it involves reframing one’s view of life and the world.  According to Mezirow, this reframing occurs in a predictable way, as a person experiences a disorienting dilemma, critically examines the issue and themselves, and eventually reintegrates their new perspectives with their life. 

Relationships are important in several of Mezirow’s stages.  In the first stage, the disorienting dilemma, the learner may experience shame, which is part of what makes the problem disorienting.  Shame is “linked to fears of social exclusion and rejection and … occurs in relation to others and the gaze of others” (Merriam, S., Baumgartner, L., 2020 p.189). Relationships are also important in the fourth phase, recognizing shared experiences.  In her qualitative study on graduate students in 2019, Ziegler describes the role of relationships in her dilemma: “The more I questioned what was going on around me regarding my new learning and how new knowledge fits into the world I lived in, the more I felt that my social relationships were getting harder to maintain. It was difficult because my new ways of thinking and changes in my worldviews were at odds with those of long-time friends and family.”  As she progressed, it was the state of her relationships that allowed her to become aware of and process her reframing: “However, I felt as if having hope for change was difficult when my closest friendships would not even entertain the idea of listening to alternative perspectives. Often times I felt at a loss regarding how to manoeuver [sic] in difficult conversations. At this point I realized I had experienced a perspective transformation” (Ziegler, 2019 p.9). From this example we can see that relationships challenge learners to go beyond the known and the comfortable and that they can serve the reflective process, driving the final phases of the perspective shift that is the hallmark of transformative learning.

Indigenous / Eastern Perspectives

Cross-cultural examination reveals that relationships play an extremely important role in adult learning throughout the world’s many cultures.  Here I will list only a few examples.

In some African indigenous cultures, peer relationships are considered the primary seat of learning.  “a major principle of African indigenous knowledge systems is that to learn is to live usefully and happily with one’s family, with one’s community, one’s society, and the spirits of one’s ancestors” Merriam, S., Baumgartner, L., 2020 p. 284).  Rather than being seen as a luxury or side benefit of participation in learning activities, peer relationships are the locus of the learning event. Peer relationships are also considered central to adult learning in Confucian cultures.  According to Merriam and Baumgartner, Confucian cultures view learning as occurring within the relationship of the individual and nature, “extended through continuous dialogues with others within the parameters of human relationships” (Merriam, S., Baumgartner, L., 2020 pp. 276-277).

Confucian cultures also have a different perspective on the relationship between learner and teacher: ““the relationship between teacher and students is not equal…learners are asked to obey teachers” Merriam, S., Baumgartner, L., 2020 p.277).  This unequal and very important relationship between learner and teacher is echoed in Hindu cultures, where “The relationship between guru, or teacher, and student, which is believed to be sacred and revered” (Merriam, S., Baumgartner, L., 2020 p.278).

One other relationship which is important in many “non-Western” learning traditions is the relationship with the divine or spirit.  Whether it be viewed as a relationship with the true nature of the universe or with a specific deity or set of deities, it should be acknowledged that, in many cultures, learning involves entering into a spiritual relationship in one form or another.

Critical Theory

Critical Theorists view peer and teacher-learner relationships through the lens of social justice and emancipation actions.  According to Merriam and Baumgartner, peer and family support, mentors, and social networks are critical to counteracting systemic oppression (Merriam, S., Baumgartner, L., 2020). In exploring the type of relationship that should exist between learners and teachers, critical theorists ask questions such as: What type of interaction will be most valuable in activating the learner’s understanding of social justice? (Salehi, 2019). For critical theorists, even love must serve the cause of societal reform: “I suggest that love must: 1) Be re-conceptualized in order to meet the demands of justice, 2) Based in Black and Brown lived experiences, 3) Be embodied for social justice 4) Tend to the whole person, and 5) Be measured by how effective our pedagogy and practice stymy alienation and heal.” (Brooks, 2017)

Constructivist

According to constructivist theorists, “Learning is not only a cognitive process, but also a social activity in which individuals acquire new insight, experience, and friendship, simultaneously internalizing the social norms and developing their cultural value and personality.” (Dang, 2018) Relationships of all types are considered extremely important for learning outcomes because the process of learning is viewed as a collaborative process of building meaning through interactions. “Constructivism holds that students construct their own knowledge and teachers should provide support for students to explore and develop understanding.” (Dang, 2018) Relationships are seen as memorable and impactful, “Your relationship as a student with your professor and the opposite is a bit like a tattoo. It doesn't go away easily. It's an experience that stays with you. Being the way it is, I cannot say it's the same with a mother or father etc., but you have only one mother and one father and like this, the professors you worked with are also unique. And the opposite as well, the students you worked with.” (Karpouza, 2019). Relationships are also seen as evolving through the process of creating knowledge, “According to the participants, the teacher-student relationship is a dynamic process that gradually evolves, continues in time and is subject to variation.” (Karpouza, 2019)

Experiential

The view of relationships is perhaps most complex for experiential learning theorists because they not only consider peer and teacher-learner relationships to be important, they also consider the relationship between the learner and the community of practice, as well as the learner’s relationship with themselves.

 From the perspective of experiential learning theory, learning cannot be separated from doing or from being.  “Learning for everyday living… happens only when people interact with the community that surrounds them.” (Merriam, S., Baumgartner, L., 2020 p. 219) Experiential learning theorists take the view that learning is gestalt.  It takes place in all of the parts of the self and within a specific situation.

In some respects, learning can be seen as defined by relationships.  For example, Merriam and Baumgartner describe learning this way as gradually moving from the periphery of the community of practice to the center. (Merriam, S., Baumgartner, L., 2020) A person who “has learned” knows that they have learned based on their relationship with the larger community, which is “the repository and conveyor of meaning that serve[s] to legitimize action”.  (Merriam, S., Baumgartner, L., 2020 p.220)

Arguably, the relationship of the learner with themselves is the most important of the relationships embraced by experiential learning, but it, too, is shaped by relationships with members of the learning community. Wals and Corcoran highlight this connection, saying, that connections with society are “anchoring” and contribute to the sense of one’s own purpose and creation of identity. (Wals, A. and Corcoran, P., 2012) 

What are the learning outcomes associated with the types of relationships in learning?

Peer Relationships

In general, strong peer relationships are accepted as contributing to positive learning outcomes.  “Studies of the effect on student peers on learning focused primarily on younger students have found that peers serve a vital educational function as they engage students more deeply in the college experience, thereby enhancing their learning.” (Lundberg, 2003 p.666) There does seem to be some uncertainty about the role of peer relationships in learning outcomes for adults, however. Researchers report that “[Peer] interactions are not important predictors of [adult students’] success” (Lundberg, 2003 p.666).  For adults over 30, factors other than peer relationships—such as time constraints-- may be more impactful on learning.  Peer relationships may be important for adult-learner success in specific settings.  Formal learning relationships with peers, for example tutoring relationships or relationships formed during work on group projects, do seem to have a positive impact on learning outcomes: “peer relationships contribute strongly to learning for students of all ages when those relation- ships are related to learning. This effect was strongest for traditional age students, but remained strong for older students” (Lundberg, 2003 p.681). Another aspect of relationships to consider is their indirect effect on individual behaviors and values, which, in turn, can affect aspects of learning such as grit and resilience. (Tu, 2019)

Teacher

The importance of the learner-teacher relationship in outcomes for the learner is undisputed.  Many researchers focus on learning and teaching styles and the outcomes when they are mismatched. (Cartney, 2010).  Others discuss the positive effect of a positive relationship on motivation, satisfaction, pride. (Karpouza, 2019)

There is also the consideration of how the teacher-learner relationships in adult learning can reinforce the values of an existing culture of practice.  Haidet and Stein explore the role of teaching doctors in the perpetuation of the “hidden curriculum” in medical education which communicates an expectation of perfection, an avoidant attitude toward uncertainty, and the exultation of hierarchy. (Haidet, P, and Stein, F, 2006).  According to their research, “The relational processes of the hidden curriculum assure the perpetuation of its content. (Haidet, P. and Stein, F. p.S18, italics original)

Mentor

A positive relationship with a mentor is associated with positive learning outcomes for adult learners, both in the chosen content area of study, and holistically.  Grosvenor, Gallagher, and Banerjee studied nursing students who were paired with dementia patients who served as their mentors while the students acclimated to work at a dementia care facility.  The researchers found that the mentorships resulted in the development of insights that would not have been possible otherwise. “A new theory of Whole Sight was identified as representing the impact of the learning that occurred as a consequence of relational learning visits. The core category of New Ways of Seeing dementia represented a broadening of students' views of dementia that encompassed the person's lives and relationships. This led to a person‐centred shift in students' practice. “(Grosvenor, Gallagher, & Banerjee, 2021) For this reason, the authors suggest that building relationships is “one of the most important skills that students learn” (Grosvenor, Gallagher, & Banerjee, 2021 p. 562).

Family

Family relationships have a complex impact on adult learning.  When caring for family members places the learner under time constraints, or when members of the family do not value the learning experience, family relationships can hinder the learning process. (Muslikhah, M. -., Kamil, M., & Kamarubiani, N., 2018) On the other hand, family members can be a source of support and improve resiliency, allowing adult learners to rise above socio-economic challenges to achieve meaningful improvements. (Muslikhah, M. -., Kamil, M., & Kamarubiani, N., 2018)

What are the factors that affect relationships in learning?

Factors that affect relationships in learning can be related to conditions of approach, personality (or identity), and homophily.  (Karpouza, 2019) 

Personality / Identity

Aspects of an individual’s identity or personality such as gender, cultural background, or age can affect the development of learning relationships. (Tu, 2020) A study of design students found that “in terms of peer relationships, females have a higher degree of intimacy, sharing behavior, and loyalty than males. While females tend to have smaller friendship circles and intimate relationships, males are used to participating in large peer groups and treat most people as friends.” (Tu, 2020 p.19) Heliot, et. al. described the differences in relationship building tendencies between students of Confucian cultures, vs. “Western” cultures in a multi-disciplinary, international learning environment. (Héliot, Y., Mittelmeier, J., Rienties, B, 2019); however, they also asserted that personality interacted with culture in complex ways.  They described how different individuals from Confucian cultures reacted to relationship building differently.  Learners’ willingness to form relationships also varies according to age.  In Tu’s study, older students were more integrated in peer relationships (Tu, 2019). It seems self-evident that personal identity will affect relationships, but research results imply that identity is not a simple predicter of outcome. 

Conditions of Approach

Conditions of approach is the phrase used to describe a learner’s or a teacher’s views on learning and how it should be approached. (Karpouza, 2019) Learners come to the learning experience with epistemological ideals—they have beliefs about where knowledge should come from and how learning should take place.  Differences in perspective about appropriate sources of knowledge and legitimate processes of sense-making can impede the development of relationships.  For example, Heliot, et. al. found that the “conceptions of knowledge/ learning” of some Confucian learners caused them to prefer relationships with fellow Confucian learners over opportunities to form relationships with other learners. (Héliot, Y., Mittelmeier, J., Rienties, B, 2019)

Homophily

Homophily is the sharing of ideas, values, and goals. (Karpouza, 2019) Learners or teachers who share common interests or a passion for the field of study appear to form relationships more easily.  (Karpouza, 2019). 

What are the applications for designers of adult learning experiences?

Teacher behaviors can be modified:

Karpouza outlines several characteristics that are recommended for teachers in order to build positive teacher-learner relationships:

• ·      Inspiring trust in knowledge by pursuing their discipline with passion
• ·    Being approachable
• ·    Being polite and reliable
• ·    Being fair
• ·    Being authentic

Behaviors to avoid would be:

• ·      Appearing disinterested in the relationship
• ·       Showing insufficient expertise
• ·       Being unfair or inappropriate
• ·       Being unavailable

Teacher’s attitudes can be adjusted:

Ruey focuses on the teacher’s attitude toward collaboration as the way to build positive relationships. “the learning process is based upon an attitude of 'shared inquiry' in which the teacher is a partner in the collaborative relationship with the student. When all participants are included in the learning picture and also realize that everyone is equally important in the knowledge construction” (Ruey, 2010)

The design of the learning experience can be expanded:

According to Grosvenor, Gallagher, and Banerjee, incorporating community based educational initiatives is key to enriching learning relationships. (Grosvenor, Gallagher, & Banerjee, 2021).  Muslikhah and Kamarubiani argue for the implementation of family education programs to align family members with the goals of the learning experience. (Muslikhah, M. -., Kamil, M., & Kamarubiani, N., 2018)

 Implicit biases can be examined and addressed:

Heliot, et.al. suggest that social learning relationships involve sensitivity.  They argue that designers of learning experiences must carefully consider cultural identities of learners at early planning stages to avoid discrimination / bias between groups.  “Programme designers need to develop a holistic, integrated view of their programme, balancing size and scale with sufficient diversity and opportunities to develop cross-cultural and interdisciplinary learning relations.” (Héliot, Y., Mittelmeier, J., Rienties, B, 2019 pp. 27-28)

The learners can be involved in designing the learning experience:

Perhaps the most straight-forward way of building relationships in learning experiences is to involve the learners themselves in the design.  “The companion or facilitator should involve … participants during the learning process. This includes planning, implementation, and evaluation processes in regard to the determination of learning materials and timing for... participants’ needs” (Muslikhah, M. -., Kamil, M., & Kamarubiani, N., 2018)

Reflection

Highlights

The part of this assignment that struck me as the most meaningful was the way it challenged my assumptions about the role of relationships in learning.  I took for granted that positive relationships were necessary for the learning process and that positive relationships would always correlate with more successful learning experiences.  The data showed that the situation isn’t necessarily that simple for adult learners.  There is more subtlety and complexity in the subject than I realized.  When designing adult learning experiences, I have always made a conscious effort to design activities that required collaboration and relationship building.  Now I wonder whether that was always in service of the learners’ needs.

 Process

The first thing I did when completing this assignment was to write down the questions I wanted to answer.  This gave structure to my research and helped me identify areas where I didn’t have answers.  I began by searching on the internet but quickly ran into problems accessing documents.  Quite often only a preview or the abstract would be available. When I switched to searching via the university libraries, I found it much easier to find complete sources.  I worked on this project for a couple of hours every evening.  I found it easier to process in small chunks.  I also relied on my group members to proofread and help me find things that I’d forgotten to include.

 

Table

Main Theoretical Idea	Applying the idea in practice
The role of relationships in learning is affected by aspects of the learners’ identity.	Educators should develop sensitivity to the way culture, age, gender, etc. can impact the development of relationships. Designs should be holistic and well-balanced and careful attention should be paid to mitigating bias.
Relationships in learning can perpetuate a “hidden curriculum”.	Educators should consider the “silent” messages they may be sending about the “right” ways to behave. Efforts should be made to address such messages in open dialogue.
Positive relationships are not always simple predictors of learner outcomes.	Rather than assuming that adult learners need to be prodded to develop relationships, educators should consider the multiple factors that can affect adult learners’ ability or willingness to form relationships.  Building relationships should be included in designs as opportunities, rather than expectations.
Family relationships can have both a positive and negative effect on learning outcomes.	In cases where it is possible and appropriate, family education programs can be helpful in supporting adult education.

 

References

Brooks, Durryle. “(Re)Conceptualizing Love: Moving Towards a Critical Theory of Love in Education for Social Justice.” Journal of Critical Thought and Praxis 6, no. 3 (May 8, 2017). https://doi.org/10.31274/jctp-180810-87.

Cartney, Pat. “Adult Learning Styles: Implications for Practice Teaching in Social Work.” Social Work Education 19, no. 6 (December 1, 2000): 609–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615470020002335.

“Dang - The Multi-Model of Peer Relationship from the Pers.Pdf.” Accessed September 23, 2021. https://webofproceedings.org/proceedings_series/ESSP/SSEHR%202018/SSEHR1220073.pdf.

Goh, A. Y. S. (2013). The significance of social relationships in learning to become a vocational and technical education teacher: a case study of three individuals. Studies in Continuing Education, 35(3), 366–378. https://doi-org.proxy.bsu.edu/10.1080/0158037X.2013.770390

Grosvenor, W., Gallagher, A., & Banerjee, S. (2021). Reframing dementia: Nursing students' relational learning with rather than about people with dementia. A constructivist grounded theory study. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 36(4), 558.

Haidet, Paul, and Howard F. Stein. “The Role of the Student-Teacher Relationship in the Formation of Physicians.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 21, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 16–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00304.x.

Heliot, YingFei; Mittelmeier, Jenna and Rienties, Bart (2019). Developing learning relationships in intercultural andmulti-disciplinary environments: A mixed method investigation of management students’ experiences. Studies in Higher Education (Early Access).

Karpouza, E. (2019). Exploring the teacher-student relationship in graduate education: a constructivist grounded theory. Teaching in Higher Education., 24(2), 121–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2018.1468319

Knewstubb, B. (2016). The learning–teaching nexus: modelling the learning–teaching relationship in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 41(3), 525–540. https://doi-org.proxy.bsu.edu/10.1080/03075079.2014.934802

Lundberg, C.A. (2003). The Influence of Time-Limitations, Faculty, and Peer Relationships on Adult Student Learning: A Causal Model. The Journal of Higher Education 74(6), 665-688. doi:10.1353/jhe.2003.0045.

Merriam, S. B., & Baumgartner, L. (2020). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (Fourth ed.). Jossey-Bass.

Muslikhah, M. -., Kamil, M., & Kamarubiani, N. (2018). The implementation of adult learning assumption readiness relationships in improving the effectiveness of learning process. Journal of Nonformal Education, 4(2), 141-150. https://doi.org/10.15294/jne.v4i2.15995

Network, O. D., John Vogelsang PhD, Maya Townsend, Matt Minahan, David Jamieson, Judy Vogel, Annie Viets, Cathy Royal, and Lynne Valek. Handbook for Strategic HR - Section 3: Use of Self as an Instrument of Change. AMACOM, 2015.

Salehi, Akbar. “Teacher and Student Interactions and Characteristics from Critical Theorists School.” International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE) 8, no. 2 (June 1, 2019): 313. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v8i2.17926.

Ruey, S. (2010). A case study of constructivist instructional strategies for adult online learning. British Journal of Educational Technology., 41(5), 706–720. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00965.x

Tu, J.-C., & Chu, K.-H. (2020). Analyzing the Relevance of Peer Relationship, Learning Motivation, and Learning Effectiveness—Design Students as an Example. Sustainability, 12(10), 4061. doi:10.3390/su12104061

Wals, Arjen E. J., and Peter Blaze Corcoran. Learning for Sustainability in Times of Accelerating Change. Wageningen Academic Publishers, 2012.

Ziegler, K. C. (2019). Transformational learning experiences: Changing relationships and comfort zones (Order No. 28140876). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I. (2467623747). Retrieved from https://www-proquest-com.proxy.bsu.edu/dissertations-theses/transformational-learning-experiences-changing/docview/2467623747/se-2?accountid=8483